EcoMap Costa Rica

Annotated Bibliography

The following annotated bibliography has been produced by the Field Ecology students. More may be added, but this list is up-to-date as of our departure.

Allen, L.H., Lemon, E., Müller, L. (1972) Environment of a Costa Rican Forest. Ecology 53: 102-111

Allen, Lemon and Müller measured five sets of data (net radiation, visible radiation, air temperature, wind speed and air samples of carbon dioxide and water) in a forest in central eastern Costa Rica. The study was conducted to determine micrometeorological phenomena in a tropical forest. The paper concludes that the forest provides insulation from wind turbulence and heat (radiation in general) and that the CO2 levels undergo a daily cycle that is heavily dependent on the species composition of the forest (this paper's findings differed greatly from another paper's findings because, the authors suspect, the other forest studied had a higher concentration of epiphytic species). Our own study should consider the following in light of this paper: maximum canopy height, presence of a gap between the first and second canopies, presence of epiphytic species, density of foliage at ground and environment directly bordering our area of study. We realize that due to lack of time and resources a proper objective study will not be performed, however, we should have time for a descriptive analysis. (Christopher Gurguis)

Anciaes, M. and M.A. Marini (2000) The effects of fragmentation on fluctuating symmetry in passerine birds in Brazilian tropical forests.

Fluctuating asymmetry is a physiological asymmetry between right and left sides of the body, caused by either genetic or environmental stress during development. The authors argued that both of these stresses come about due to fragmentation of a forest habitat and collected data to support this. Since fragmentation decreases genetic variability by promoting interbreeding, FA might increase due to genetic factors. Additionally, fragmentation disturbs a habitat and decreases nesting sites and food sources, which might create an environmental stress on the developing bird. In the study, they mist-netted seven tropical forest fragments and measured the wingspan and tarsus of the birds. They found that F.A is much more abundant in fragmented forests than in continuous spaces. They also researched the relationship between fragment size and the amount of F.A. They concluded that F.A increases as the forest fragments decreased in size. (Katherine Biernat)

Augelli, J. (1987) Costa Rica's frontier legacy. Geographical Review Vol. 77, No. 1:1-16.

The author of this paper describes the history of the settlement of frontier land in Costa Rica and the frontier legacy, which includes wasteful practices and untenable perceptions. In this paper, the emergence, movement, and eventual disappearance of the frontier are described, and the frontier experience is related to various perceptions, attitudes, and practices that Costa Ricans have evolved toward the land and the environment. When describing the history of land settlement, the author divides it up into three sections: Frontier to 1850, Frontier Expansion 1851-1900, and Final Phase 1900-1965. The author concludes that the legacy of the settlement frontier in Costa Rica still lingers; its consequences include discrepancies between ecological reality and landuses and agricultural practices, a wasteful pioneer attitude toward exploitation of the soil and forest resources, and governmental policies for planned colonization that are ill-advised, and land grants to individuals and corporations. Overall, this paper provides the reader with good information on the history of land in Costa Rica.(Lorea Ormazabal)

Barrentes, Gilbert; Sanchez, J.E. (2004) Geographical Distribution, Ecology, and Conservation Status of Costa Rican Dry-Forest Avifauna. In: Frankie, Gordon, W., Editor. Biodiversity Conservation in Costa Rica: Learning the Lessons in a Seasonal Dry Forest. Berkeley: Berkeley University of California Press.

This chapter covering the geographical distribution of Costa Rican dry forest stipulates the overall geography of the area, going into rich detail. This chapter could be of use to our study insofar as it covers the geography of Costa Rica as a whole, giving our group a big picture concerning its geography. Utilizing this big picture, we could employ this chapter to give an idea concerning the terrain that we would be mapping. (Noah Jouett)

Bermejo, Ivan, Canellas, Isabel, San Miguel, Alfonso (2004). Growth and yield models for teak plantations in Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 189: 97-110.

The authors commence the article by noting the economic importance of teak trees, explaining its widespread harvesting popularity in plantations across Costa Rica. However, the authors stress the importance for proper plantation management, particularly in the areas of "enhanced knowledge regarding diverse aspects of teak plantation establishment as well as silviculture, management, utilization and the ecological aspects of both plantations and natural stands." With a view towards better plantation management, the authors had four objectives in their study: (1) to estimate volume for commercial wood, (2) to develop a preliminary site index classification for teak, (3) to assess volume growth under clear-felling system for rotations of 25 years, and (4) to provide data for future plantation owners towards better management. Working with 318 500m2 plots across several plantations, the authors used a variety of mathematical formulas to assess their objectives---particularly with tree volume measured at DBH. After the study, the authors established that the area they conducted their study is excellent for teak production. Moreover, the also established and reaffirmed volume equations for assessing tree growth, proving useful to our study. (Noah Jouett)

Blum, Nicole. (2007) Environmental education in Costa Rica: building a framework for sustainable development? International Journal of Educational Development 28: 348-358. (Accessed 2008 May 20)

This article discusses the efforts being made in Costa Rica to promote sustainable development through environmental education. The author compiles data and information from previous research and investigations in order to present a brief history of Costa Rica's environmental educational plans. Then, she discusses the diverse network of programs and institutions involved in implementing these plans and addresses the surrounding politics. Since the 1980s, Costa Rica has been a leader in environmental protection, giving it the reputation of the "'green republic.'" In contemporary Costa Rica, the author notes a high level of public awareness of environmental concerns as a result of the education by the media and other public and private organizations. In the conclusion, the author states that more research would be needed to explore the potentials and limits of environmental education as a tool for creating a more sustainable society. This article is applicable to our study because it provides some history and background on Costa Rica's goals to preserve their environment. (Adaire Chatry)

Boinski, S. and Peter E. Scott. Association of Birds with Monkeys in Costa Rica. JSTOR. Biotropica, Vol. 20, No. 2. The Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation. June 1988. p 136 - 143.

Several avian species (double-toothed kites Harpagus bidentatus, gray-headed tanagers Eucometis pencillata, and tawny-winged woodcreepers Dendrocincla anabatina) have been found to forage behind the squirrel monkey troops Saimiri oerstedi, and occasionally capuchin monkey troops Cebus capucinus, of Costa Rica's Parque Nacional Corcovado, a tropical wet forest habitat. The foraging activities of the monkeys flushed out arthropods, particularly army ants, and small vertebrates which the avian species then preyed upon. Squirrel monkeys require forest habitats for foraging. Relating the the Leaves and Lizards project, this study stresses generally the importance of species interactions and interdependence within an ecosystem. More specifically, the need for continuous tree cover is stressed, if monkeys are to be attracted to the sight. Squirrel monkeys, in particular, are in danger of eradication due to habitat loss, and their restoration the the area could potentially benefit the local avian community.

Brandani, A., Hartshorn, G.S., Orians, G.H. (1988) Internal heterogeneity of gaps and species richness in Costa Rican tropical wet forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 4:99-119

Brandini et al.'s paper will be particularly useful if we are able to begin some preliminary assessment of our quadrats, specifically if we look at the speciation that occurs within quadrat samples (whether forested, deforested, or reforested). The paper considers a large number of variables including size of gap, light intensity changes created by gap formation and species colonization in gaps and attempts to extrapolate from the data evidence for patterns ort randomness. Particularly useful for our study is the conclusion that species colonization is the same independent of which species of tree fell to cause a gap. While over the course of our generation "complete" reforestation may not occur, as the trees planted die and are replaced, an environment similar to the original rainforest may grow again. (Christopher Gurguis)

Cammack, Rex G (2003). Cartography, Virtual Reality, and the Internet: Integrating Abstract Models of the Environment Via the Internet. Maps and the Internet 2003: 359-370

In this expansive chapter, the author explains that the internet has provided cartographers with a new medium for their art. Such a medium increases the accessibility of maps, providing the map-reader with animations and even "virtual reality" (i.e. the use of panoramic photos via QuickTime). With such an advent, cartography proves extraordinarily useful to ecology in making map-readers environmentally aware of the area that they see. The author lays out the method for obtaining such maps, going into meticulous detail. This chapter will prove very useful to our project insofar as this is exactly what we want to achieve. It will behoove us to study this chapter carefully and understand its considerations deeply. (Noah Jouett)

Carey, E. V. Brown, S. Gillespie, A. J. R. Lugo, A. E. (1994) Tree Mortality in Mature Lowland Tropical Moist and Tropical Lower Montane Moist Forests of Venezuela. From J Store (accessed 2008 22 May)

These authors examined tree mortality patterns over long-term data collected from 17 different plots. Mortality is important because it affects forested ecosystems. The plots represented mature tropical lowland moist forest and tropical lower montane moist forest. It was seen that larger diameter trees have longer half-lives. Also, dead trees function as carbon and nutrient sinks for forests. If we can understand baseline mortality rates, then we can detect ecosystem stresses (environmental pollution, acid precipitation, ozone, other gases, and any other disturbances). We can then also predict forest yield and growth which helps conservationists manage forests better. Another point is that mortality rates are independent of elevation changes within the same temperature zone type. This article will help us understand the differences that mortality can cause when we look at old forests compared to the reforested and unforested areas. (Mary Boyum)

Carpenter, F.L., Nichols, J.D., Sandi, E. (2004). Early growth of native and exotic trees planted on degraded tropical pasture. Forest Ecology and Management 196: 367-378.

The authors of this study investigated the effect of erosion on survival and growth. They obtained their data from 30 experimental blocks to capture various terrains and degrees of erosion across the farm. Overall they found that there was a clear relationship between their erosion index and tree performance of most species. In their conclusions the authors indicated that any future work should test the ability of pine trees to prepare a site for later planting of other species, and also that they should pursue the possibility that restoring soil AMF communities could facilitate tree restoration in areas that are severely eroded. The paper, although highly technical, will also prove useful in our group study of tree species. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Cox, G. W. (2002) Plant Community Structure. In: General Ecology Laboratory Manual Ed. 8. Columbus, Ohio: McGraw Hill. p. 61-70.

This chapter was taken from a laboratory manual. It is especially important to the plant group because it goes into detail on how to sample and solve problems. First it talks about some general sampling considerations. Then it describes quadrat sampling which we will probably get into in the second part of our field work. This chapter also discusses plant community structure, line intercept analysis, and point-quarter techniques. In this section we worked some problems on relative density, density, dominance, relative dominance, frequency, and relative frequency. An important calculation to figure out at first is the mean point-to-individual distance. Then we figure out the total density of individuals. This measurement is obtained by the reciprocal of the mean per individual. One last major value is the importance value which equals the sum or average of all the relative values. (Mary Boyum)

Curry-Lindahl, Kai. "Shifting Cultivation." Conservation for Survival. William Morrow & Company, Inc., New York. 1972. p 122 - 125.

This chapter discusses the cultivation methods of farmers in tropical areas. The practice of shifting cultivation is often employed, where an area of forest is slashed and burned, cultivated, and abandoned for newly deforested areas after the soil fallows in a few years. The ash from the burning fertilizes the thin layer of topsoil for a time, but the organic composition of the soil is changed by the burning and, no longer nourished by forest debris, quickly loses its fertility. After about three to five years, the land begins to be reclaimed by pioneer vegetation, but it is only after about 250 years does the secondary growth begin to resemble primary forest. This chapter makes the point that since human populations have become larger in the tropics, shifting cultivation presents a danger to the land that it did not used to and fallow areas are given no chance to re-colonize and their soil becomes irrevocably impoverished. The suggestion made is that permanent farms with crop-rotation be established on suitable lands. A synthesis between this chapter and that of Stiles and Skutch (p 44-50) could be formed regarding good use of conservational methods of farming in Costa Rica. There is need for large areas of undisturbed forest, and, to avoid the danger of monocultures, there is the need for small, privately run farms. These farms must not employ the traditional shifting-cultivation methods, but must employ crop-rotation and acceptable modern agricultural means to maintain soil fertility and reduce new deforestation. (Katheryn Miller)

Curry-Lindahl, Kai. "Vegetation Uniformity and Pesticides." Conservation for Survival. William Morrow & Company, Inc., New York. 1972. p 139 - 142.

This chapter further addresses the ecological need for agricultural diversity. Cultivation automatically decreases the complexity of the ecosystem, but simplification is often the goal of agriculture. Monocultures, sustained by artificial chemical means, yield the most efficient and productive short-term results and provide easier harvests than do diversified cultures. Long-term problems such as increasing soil and water toxicity and a decrease in remaining biodiversity, leading in turn to an increase in susceptibility to pest and disease, and whereas in the past the habitat could itself counter them, the lack of natural habitat prompts the use of more chemicals. Reasonable suggestions for improvement of this situation include reducing the size of monocultures and surrounding them by natural or diversified habitats. Reversion to organic methods might be added. It is noted that modern rangeland favors the planting mixed grasses due to the increased ecological stability. (Katheryn Miller)

Cusack, D. Montagnini, F. (2003) The role of native species plantations in recovery of understory woody diversity in degraded pasturelands of Costa Rica. From Science Direct (accessed 2008 22 May)

The authors of the piece noted that timber plantations quicken forest succeeding processes by improving the qualities that promote woody regeneration. They counted, identified, and separated the woody species by height. They also looked at the canopy openness and leaf biomass on plantation floor. They found no relationship between leaf biomass and understory regeneration. One of the goals of this work was to see how they could promote continual forest growth between reforested areas. Control plots had a 0 value for regeneration and the planted plots had therefore significantly higher regenerating values. They also found an interaction between site and plantation species. Another interesting fact was that there is no linear correlation between canopy openness and the regenerating plants, but it does have a quadratic relationship. With this model, 8% of the variability of the understory is explained by canopy openness. They also point out that to fully understand forest succession, one must observe changes long-term. So our 5 days in Costa Rica will not be enough to fully detail forest succession. (Mary Boyum)

Cusack, D., Montagnini, F. (2003) The role of native species plantations in recovery of understory woody diversity in degraded pasturelands of Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 188: 1-15

Similar to the Butler 2003 paper, this paper analyzes the restoration process at three varied sites, using as controls abandoned plots. This study focuses on correlating species diversity under six species used for reforesting. Also, like the Butler 2003 paper, this paper considers methods of seed dispersal and categorizes each plot into one of five "guilds." The discussion of the paper draws conclusions about the importance of leaf biomass and canopy openness. The paper will be particularly useful in establishing a control system in our own study. It highlights the variability observed between the three major sites studied. (Christopher Gurguis)

Egoh, et al. (2008) Mapping ecosystem services for planning and management. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment. (Accessed 2008 May 20)

The authors of this paper mapped five ecosystem components in South Africa: water supply, water flow, soil accumulation, soil retention and carbon storage. The article describes the methods they used to get their results by going through each ecosystem service. The authors conclude that because each ecosystem service occupies less than one third of the country with very little overlap, each part of the country must be important for providing one resource. This article was useful in gaining a familiarity with some of the techniques used in ecosystem mapping, particularly in mapping water volume and flow rate. (Adaire Chatry)

Daily, Gretchen C., Paul R. Ehrlich, and G. Arturo Sanchez-Azofeifa. Countryside Biogeography: Use of Human-Dominated Habitats by the Avifauna of Southern Costa Rica. Ecological Applications, Vol. 11, No. 1. (Feb 2001), pp 1-13.

This paper details the comparison between the composition of avifauna found in forest fragment and open habitats of the countryside, as well as assesses the faunal change the has occurred since deforestation. A positive correlation was found between forest fragment size and species richness of avifauna. In comparison with larger forest tracts outside of the study area, it appears that between 4 and 24 species have disappeared from the deforested area. A substantial proportion of the native bird fauna occurred in a agricultural landscape, but this does not necessarily imply that these species maintain sustainable populations there, since since relatively large forest tracts are situated around the study area, about half of forest species have little prospect of surviving outside of the forest, and the ongoing forest habitat reduction may greatly reduce avian diversity in agricultural landscapes. Social interactions of avifauna may change in open habitats, and ongoing trends of deforestation and agricultural intensification almost certainly will reduce the capacity of countryside habitats to support the avifauna. Open habitats are not suitable for all major groups of birds, and the common open-habitat species show a high degree of similarity in species composition and relative evenness of diversity among open-habitat sites. The need for more research to understand the process of faunal change is stressed, but the author's conclusion is the deforestation does not necessarily "spell doom" for all forest species, but cautionary notes are that half of all forest species cannot survive in open-habitats, that it is unknown how sustainably the existing countryside biota are, and that the more intensively managed agricultural countryside is less likely to support biodiversity. (Katheryn Miller)

De Agar, Pilar Martin, de Pablo, Carlos L. and Pineda, Francisco D. (1995). Mapping the ecological structure of a territory: a case study in Madrid (central Spain). Environmental Management 19: 1-13.

The authors, in writing this paper, hope to set a guideline for future studies involving ecological cartography by providing an in-depth procedure to accomplish this end. To complete such an objective, the authors begin by looking into what an ecological map should do, and how it differs from ordinary maps: it should "display the spatial patterns caused by ecological interactions among the elements of the territory." Overall, these spatial patterns can be categorized three ways: (1) unidirectional transfers of energy, matter and information ("vectorial transfer") (2) in "zonal processes" (such as vegetation belts) and bidirectional transfers of energy, matter, etc. ("cellular or azonal processes"). Using Trend Surface Analysis (TSA) and multivariate coordinate analysis (MOA) over an 8000 km2 area, the authors conducted a study to ecologically map Madrid, Spain. Their produced map was very similar to other maps for the area on-file; hence, they considered their study a success. In conducting their study, the authors took 675, 1 km2 grids and assessed it for 115 ecological features such as topography, vegetation, land use, etc. This paper will prove extremely useful to our study in providing us with an established and published method to accomplish our objectives (Noah Jouett)

Elton, Charles S. "The Balance between Populations." The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. Methuen & Co Ltd., London. 1958. p 109 - 124.

Invasive species are discussed as well as mechanisms of human and natural resistance to ecological invasion. Exotic species are easily introduced to an established ecosystem, and if invasive, it is important that the invasion be met by the ecosystems full capacity for resistance. Likewise, native invasives are naturally kept in check by existing species interactions and competition. Established habitats are complex combinations of competition and cooperation, and have little tolerance for the introduction of new species. Any newcomer must either share a niche which can sustain an increase in number of dependent individuals, or the newcomer must out-compete established and healthy species. From this, a positive correlation is observed between biodiversity levels and resistance to invasion in a habitat. It can be concluded that the trend of declining biodiversity in fragmented habitats in Costa Rica must be taken seriously, for it brings the threat of invasion to the fragmented areas themselves, and if an invasive becomes established, to the surviving forest itself. Re-establishing natural biodiversity should be a primary concern of conservation efforts. (Katheryn Miller)

Finegan, B. McGinley, K. (2003) The ecological sustainability of tropical forest management: evaluation of the national forest management standards of Costa Rica and Nicaragua, with emphasis on the need for adaptive management. From Science Direct (accessed 2008 21 May)

The author of this article is trying to show how the standards for national forest management in both Costa Rica and Nicaragua have drastically improved recently. These organizations focus on fulfillment of positive forest practices. But there is a surprisingly strong lack of emphasis on changes in the ecosystems or adaptive management. This article was written in a manner to define, communicate, and evaluate sustainable forest management and certification (adaptive) in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The evaluations were done by international forest ecology groups and policy makers. This goes to show that they need to work in collaboration with each other to maintain a national level reforesting program. Costa Rican focus on reforestation is important to this class because we will be flying down there to assist in this process. (Mary Boyum)

Franke, Joseph (1999) Costa Rica's National Parks and Preserves: A Visitor's Guide. Mountaineers 5-8: p. 68-205

The author, in the second part of this book, covers the rich geography and ecology of Costa Rica in its various parts. Going into explicit detail, the author discusses the various ecological points of Costa Rica by region: by its Northwestern Region, its Southern Pacific Region, its Central Highlands Region, and its Caribbean Region. This discussion could be of use to our group insofar as it offers specific guidelines as to the geography of the Northwestern region of Costa Rica: the approximate area of Leaves and Lizards. Such an overview will prove useful to our group in noting the major water reserves, plant/animal distributions, etc. of the region. (Noah Jouett)

Frankie, G., Newstrom, L., Vinson, S.B., Barthell, B. (1993) Nesting-habitat preferences of Selected Centris Bee Species in Costa Rican Dry Forest. Biotropica Vol. 25, No. 3: 322-333.

This study examines the preferred nesting habitats of seven Centris species that make their nests in preexisting holes in dead trees. Data was obtained from wooden sampling units with preexisting standardized holes and diameters that were placed in several habitat types in the field; these units were monitored and provided a quantitative measure of nesting behavior and changes in bee frequency through time. The authors compared their study to a 1986 study. Overall they found that several nesting sites exist, with each species having a preference that is predictable. In their conclusions they indicate that future studies will need to examine the biological basis for changes in Centris bee frequency through time, taking into account seasonal behavior. Overall the paper was technical, but useful for us since we will be conducting our work in Costa Rican habitats. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Gargiullo, M. B. (2008) A Field Guide to Plants of Costa Rica. Oxford University Press Inc.

The author of this book tried to compile information necessary to understanding the tropical ecology of Costa Rica. She wanted to write a plant guidebook to help tourists, students, and Costa Ricans better understand their plants. She obtained her information from several ecological conservation efforts in Costa Rica. There is also information about the geography and climate offered in the introduction. She talks about plants and their life cycles, plant terms, distribution of plants, specific types of plants, the limitations to her study, and her methods and techniques. This source is valuable because it offers an insight into Costa Rica ecology, plants, and how to go about identifying them. (Mary Boyum)

Gartner, Georg (2003). Telecartography: Maps, Multimedia and the Mobile Internet. Maps and the Internet 2003: 385-396

In this chapter, the author outlines the principles behind telecartography, or the accessibility of maps on internet-enabled mobile devices, enabling the user to actually take a multimedia map into the field. Indeed, the author dives into the processes behind building a map that can be viewed from a mobile device. Furthermore, the author gives an extensive discussion concerning the parameters of mobile wireless devices displaying multimedia maps. This article proves useful to our study insofar as it offers an interesting feature for our project--making available a mobile-format of our map. This will allow future projects in the same area to access much data concerning the field. (Noah Jouett)

Genereux, D.P., Jordan, M. (2006) Interbasin groundwater flow and groundwater interaction with surface water in a lowland rainforest, Costa Rica: A review. Journal of Hydrology. 320: 385-399. (Accessed 2008 May 21)

This article reviews work done at one study site over 10 years to quantify the interbasin groundwater flow and its effects. Surface water and ground water interact at low elevations and this interaction is greatly facilitated by interbasin groundwater flow. They found that IGF has a significant effect on steam discharge and on the ion concentrations in stream water and riparian ground water. The results led the authors to pose questions about how to best protect a low land rainforest that receives 2/3 of its water and 97% of its major ions from an upward flow of deep groundwater. They then outline some suggestions to ease and increase the accuracy of groundwater estimations. These could be helpful to us as we map out our protocol. (Adaire Chatry)

GIS.com webpage. (accessed 23May 2008) What is GIS? www.gis.com/whatisgis/index.html

The GIS webpage provides details on the information the can be acquired through GIS. It also discusses the benefits that can come from combining GIP and GPS data. Some important feature of GIS that may be applicable to our study are its ability to identify patterns in an area and changes over time. (Adaire Chatry)

Gomes, L., Oostra, V., Nijman, V., Cleef, A., Kappelle, M. (2008) "Tolerance of frugivoros birds to habitat disturbance in a tropical cloud forest" Biological Conservation vol. 141, no. 3: 860-871

The authors of this study focused on the idea that frugivorous birds assist in reforestation through seed dispersion. This study examines the "tolerance of a frugivorous bird community to anthropogenic habitat disturbance within the broader context of natural forest regeneration with conservation purposes". Results suggest that tolerance to habitat disturbances increases as size of frugivores decreases. Therefore, moderately disturbed habitats are more susceptible to natural regeneration aided by seed dispersion from frugivorous birds. Due to a lack of large seed dispersers, as they are less tolerant to disturbances, severely disturbed habitats appear to be less susceptible to restoration through natural regeneration. (Adriane Smith)

Gomez, L.D. and Savage, J.M. (1983) Searches on that rich coast: Costa Rican field biology, 1400-1980. Costa Rican natural history. Chicago: University of Chicago. p. 1-10.

This article provides a history of the environmental and economical balance in Costa Rica beginning with the discovery and conquest by Europeans in the 1400s. The cultivation of Costa Rican coffee marked the emergence of a new industry. This industry along with the Gold Rush of 1848 fueled a demographic "explosion" in Central America. The author also traces the emergence of field biologists in Costa Rica including the formation of organizations to preserve the forests and a school of biology. This article is applicable to our study because it discusses some field information from the Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS) field sites. Also, an ecological map of Costa Rica shows the terrain in each zone. In the conclusion, the authors are unsure about the future of Costa Rican field biology. They are concerned that the country maybe tempted to exploit their lands for short term wins. (Adaire Chatry)

Gómez, L.D., Savage, J.M (1983) Searchers on That Rich Coast: Costa Rican Field Biology, 1400-1980. In: Janzen, Daniel H. editor. Costa Rican Natural History. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. p. 1-11.

In their highly expansive paper, L.D. Gómez and J.M. Savage cover the history of Costa Rica and its impact on the natural sciences. Starting from the 1400s when the Central Americas were discovered because of European expansionism, the authors postulate the effects of historical factors such as Costa Rica's coffee production to its political situations on field biology--insofar as Costa Rica has an abundance of "field." Though at times turbulent, Costa Rica's history has given way for such organizations as OTS and CONICIT to study the country's rich ecology. Yet, with the advent of massive pollution and other bio-degrading factors, Costa Rica faces the daunting challenge of preserving its environment, so that field biology, long in catching up to modern standards due to socioeconomic and political factors, can adequately do it justice. This paper relates to our study insofar as it adequately gives us a background of Costa Rican history and its relation to field biology, providing some interesting biological facts towards the end of the paper (pg. 9 or so). (Noah Jouett)

Gordon W. Frankie, Alfonso Mata, and S. Bradleigh Vinson. "Biodiversity Inventories in Costa Rica and Their Application to Conservation." Biodiversity Conservation in Costa Rica. Berkeley University of California Press, 2004. p 229 - 235.

The need for a comprehensive inventory of organisms is stressed in making conservation decisions. Inventories are frequently based on a limited range of taxonomically well-known organisms, such as vertebrates and vascular plants, ignoring poorly known groups such as invertebrates and fungi, which are difficult to study but can represent the majority of forest species. These species often have shorter generation times, thus responding more rapidly to environmental changes and therefore are often good indicators that a problem exists before other species are affected. Basic taxonomic research is called for to increase our knowledge of these organisms so that they can be utilized in conservation inventories. Until this is realized, inventories could collect specimens of lesser known and unknown organisms to establish a baseline for future research. (It may be a good idea to do a baseline survey and continuing surveys of arthropods at Leaves and Lizards to use as an indicator of yearly/long-term change.) There is also need for connected databases of the inventory effort in Costa Rica. The Arthropods of La Selva project has made some progress in doing this (and could be used as a comparison to a Leaves and Lizards inventory). (Katheryn Miller)

Guariguata, Manuel R., Harold Arias-Le Claire, and Garbriela Jones ( Sep 2002) Tree seed fate in a logged and fragmented forest landscape, Northeast Costa Rica.. Biotropica, Vol 34, No. 3 pp 405-415

The authors conducted a study in order to access the influence of fragmentation on the ability of fruit bearing canopy trees to regenerate. The trees regenerate through seed dispersal through fruit eating animals. The authors hypothesized that fragmentation decreases seed survival and germination due to increased mortality of seed dispersing animals and increased seed predation. They studied two species of canopy trees and described the method of threading seeds in order to assess the extent of dispersion of seeds through animals. They determined that the ability to disperse seeds was not affected by fragmentation. However, seed predation was proven to increase in fragmented areas. Increased populations of seed consuming species of rodents were noted because rodents from surrounding lands and the forest edge would multiply and freed off of the canopy fruits and seeds. The authors concluded that this long term effect will cause regrowth of canopy trees to be much more difficult than in continuous lands. The difficulty to regrow canopy trees will also affect animals with canopy habitats, such as certain types of tropical insects and birds. (Katherine Biernat)

Healey, Sean P. and Gara, Robert I. (2008) The effect of a teak (Tectona grandis) plantation on the establishment of native species in an abandoned pasture in Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 176: 497-507

In this paper, the authors endeavor to characterize the diversity effects of a teak tree plantation versus that of an abandoned pasture in Costa Rica. Although plantations are somewhat successful in reforestation with regards to enhancing reproduction via seed dispersal, improving soil conditions, and impeding the growth of aggressive grasses, overall, they decrease diversity. The authors came to this conclusion by employing a diversity calculation via transects for the teak plantation and the abandoned field, and finding that the abandoned pasture had the higher diversity (.909 compared to .857), which is pretty understandable. This article proves useful to our study insofar as it offers the effects of plantations on diversity. (Katheryn Miller)

Heinen, Joel T. Comparisons of the Leaf Litter Herpetofuana in Abandoned Cacao Plantations and Primary Rain Forest in Costa Rica: Some Implications for Faunal Restoration. Biotropica, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp 431-439.

Comparisons between the leaf litter herpetofauna of two different cocoa plantations (abandoned 5 and 25 years ago) in close proximity to primary forest, and between the leaf litter herpetofauna of stands of primary forest. Abundance and biomass of herpetofauna, as well as the depth of leaf litter, were greater in more recently disturbed sites, while evenness, richness, and diversity of herpetofauna were greater at the less recently disturbed sites. The deeper leaf litter of recently disturbed sites may influence prey availability, and the lower percentage of canopy cover may lead to temperature extremes and lower moisture. The more recently disturbed sites displayed lower diversity despite the abundance of animals, possibly due to the structural simplicity of the plantations, and the dominance of some species increased. The ecological imbalance at both plantation sites was notable and these results imply that herpetofaunal restoration is a slow process. Knowledge of prior land use and time since disturbance may be important information in faunal restoration. (Katheryn Miller)

Hummel, S. (2000) Height, diameter and crown dimensions of Cordia alliodora associated with tree density. Forest Ecology and Management 127: 31-40.

In this study, the author quantified the relationships between stand density, or trees per hectare (tph), and tree growth characteristics of C. alliodora. Data was obtained from both Nelder density plots that were planted at La Selva Biological Station and secondary forests or plantations dominated by C. alliodora. Overall the author found that the response of C. alliodora to density was consistent with silvicultural principles described for temperate trees, that diameter increment was related to tree density, while height was not, that in other tropical species, the ratio between the crown diameter and the stem diameter was not associated with tree density, and that height, diameter, and the K/d ratio were related to the age of an individual tree. In the conclusions the author indicates that results from this study could help interpret results from other experiments, and that future studies of height growth should include an experiment to test the response of C. alliodora to fertilizer, and one to investigate the patterns in height growth over time. This paper was technical, and will prove useful in our study of plants. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Janzen, Daniel H. (1983) Costa Rican natural history: 1-11.

This text discusses the political and social history as it relates to biology and field ecology in Costa Rica. It begins with a brief history of the factors that brought travelers to Costa Rica, such as the Coffee industry, which helped the developing country forge ties with other European countries, as well as travelers who came for adventurous reasons. It discusses various important figures in early biology as well as the development of the Costa Rican education system. The closures of schools in the mid to late 19th century left a country with very few education opportunities besides a law school, and consequently most of the prominent persons were lawyers and scientists and naturalists were viewed as either eccentric or a hobby for the wealthy--a view that the articles says still continues to exist today. The schools were eventually reinstated in the 1920s, but not without problems, and the natural sciences suffered. It discusses the foundation of the biology department in the 1950s at the Universidad de Costa Rica and its effects on the view of field ecology. It also gives a list of agencies that contributed to the development of field studies during the later 20th century such as CATIE, CCC, MAG, the establishment of SPN, and the development of a field biology organization started to discuss the education of future biologists. It also gives a description, history and development, and current standing of OTS. (Samantha Behrent)

Jankowski, J.E., Rabenold, K.N. (2007) Endemism and local rarity in birds of geotropically montane rainforest. Biological Conservation 138: 453-463

The study tests whether there is a relationship between abundance and distribution in Costa Rican cloud forest birds in Tilaran mountains. Three samples: study sites <100km2, within Costa Rica and Panama 100-10,000km2, and species geographic range >10,000km2. They used point counts and mist netting as well as auditory and visual counts. They compared their results to two other similar studies. They found a positive correlation between abundance and distribution. They also suggest that more large scales studies are needed to test this relationship further. (Samantha Behrent)

Jongmans, A. G. Van Breemen, N. Gradstein, S. R. Van Oort, F. (2001) How liverworts build hanging gardens from volcanic ash in Costa Rica. From Science Direct (accessed 2008 22 May)

The authors of this study focused on a pioneer liverwort which was growing on the volcanic ash of Mt. Arenal. Plants like the liverworts have the ability to maintain and modify a habitat. In this example, the liverwort actually creates layers on the ash, clinging to the cliffs and boulders. The liverwort growing at the base of Arenal is a neotropical species living on the moist volcanic substrate. It forms extended carpets on the fumaric springs. The authors performed a one-tailed T test to see how the chemical concentration of the ash related to the chemical concentration of the hanging garden (liverwort growth). The sediment ash of the carpet is richer in elements than the erupted volcanic ash. They also found that the clay content of the gardens were a result of primary mineral weathering. They also found the carpet to contain gypsum from x-ray diffraction. This is useful because it show that variations in temperature and moisture create different environmental conditions which help determine primary succession of plants. (Mary Boyum)

Jongmans, A.G., van Breemen, N., Gradstein, S.R., van Oort, F. (2001) How liverworts build hanging gardens from volcanic ash in Costa Rica. Catena 44: 13-22.

The authors in this study examined the growth of Nordia succulenta, a liverwort, on the foot slopes of the 1968 cone of the Arenal volcano. Data was obtained from particle and chemical analysis of the liverwort carpet samples taken in triplicate. Overall they found that the interaction between the pioneer vegetation of liverworts and airborne ash has implications for the development of soil and for the establishment of vegetation on bare lava flow. In their conclusions they think that further succession will lead to the disappearance of Nardia in these environments, and that in a dynamic environment, any succession beyond Nardia will be delayed so long as its specific growing conditions are maintained. This paper was very informative, and will provide us with useful information in our study of different habitats in Costa Rica. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Jullien, Mathilde & Clobert, Jean (2000) "The survival value of flocking in neotropical birds: Reality of fiction?" Ecology vol. 81, no. 12: 3416-3430

The authors of this study observed flocking patterns of three different groups: 1. Exclusively alone or in pairs 2. Facultative flock members 3. Obligate flock members. They tested whether survival rates differed among these three groups. The authors found that results suggest obligate flocking may be an ecological factor encouraging evolution in tropical birds. This book will be of interest and useful to our project as we have decided to make note of flocking patterns throughout point counts. (Adriane Smith)

Kalacska, M., et al (2008) Baseline assessment for environmental services payments from satellite imagery: A case study from Costa Rica and Mexico. Journal of environmental management. 88: 348-359 (Accessed 2008 May 21)

This article presents the results of a study using different forest cover measuring tools for baseline estimation. Although the discussion of the instruments is highly technical, the study's results present some relative information. The article also emphasizes the importance of baseline estimates in measuring future changes. The comparative study's inconsistent results stress the importance of using the right devices for the terrain when establishing a baseline. The authors emphasize the need for a greater awareness of how maps are created from satellite imagery and the limitations of those images. These findings could be taken into consideration when we are analyzing our data. (Adaire Chatry)

Kleinn, Christoph, Ramirez, Carla, Holmgren, Peter, Valverde, Sonia Lobo, and Chavez, Guido (2005). A national forest resources assessment for Costa Rica based on low intensity sampling. Forest Ecology and Management 210: 9-23.

The authors begin the article by noting the importance of a National Forest Inventory (NFI) for a country's conservation efforts insofar as it provides information to heads of state for forest-managing decisions. With this light, the authors conducted a pilot NFI study in Costa Rica, and obtained valuable data describing the overall geology of the region. Before the authors delved into the results from the study, they outlined several notable statistics: that Costa Rica at one point was covered almost 100% by forests, but suffered severe deforestation from 1950-1984 which saw a deforestation rate of 3.9% a year. Utilizing aerial photo plots of about 15km2 and interview information with landowners, the authors conducted the study throughout Costa Rica, even with trees outside a forest (TOF, 8.2% of the country, the study found). The results can be categorized three-fold: in tree resource in forests, tree resource outside of forests and interviews with forest users, providing a table with the percentage of each. The authors concluded that the total forest cover was 48.4%. This article contains several valuable tables outlining the kinds of forests in Costa Rica, proving useful to our study by providing us with great background ecological information. (Noah Jouett)

Leopold, A.C., Andrus, R., Finkeldey, A., Knowles, D. (2001) Attempting restoration of wet tropical forests in Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 142: 243-249.

This study describes the progress made in an effort to show that restoration of wet native forest can be stimulated by the planting of mixed stands of native hardwoods. Data for this study was obtained from permanent plots (20 m x 20 m) that were established in representative areas of plantings. Overall the authors found an increase in species complexity within 5 years after planting native trees. In their conclusions they state that the growth performance of native tree species and early evidences of biological complexity indicate that real benefits can be achieved from the planting of mixed seeds of native species. This promotes the local restoration of wet tropical forests and achieves values associated with biodiversity. The paper overall was technical, but will prove useful in our group study of plants. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Leopold, Carl A, Andrus, R., Finkeldey, A., Knowles, D. (2001). Attempting restoration of wet tropical forests in Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 142: 243-249

The authors begin the article with astonishing statistics: once, 96-99% of Costa Rica was covered in forest-now, as a result of deforestation for timber exportation and cattle grazing in recent decades, 90% of that original forest has been destroyed, leaving only 46% of Costa Rica forested. However, because of soil nutrient depletion, farm owners are abandoning their pastures, often selling their properties to environmental activists to reforest the sold land. The next step, as the authors make clear, is critical: correctly fostering forest recovery is paramount to reestablishing Costa Rica's once rich ecosphere. The authors discharge heavy scrutiny towards the forest recovery method of monoculture plantation by pointing out that: (1) these plantations actually degrade ecospheres, (2) they deplete water tables, (3) their need for pesticide use, which damages the environment. Also, these plantations are economically disadvantageous for local farmers, as larger landowners normally run these plantations. The authors, thus, conducted a study where they planted various native species in southwestern Costa Rica. Such a study resulted in fast-growing and ultimately thriving trees, putting this region on track towards a recovered ecosphere. (Noah Jouett)

Levey, D., Moermond, T., Denslow, J. (1984) Fruit Choice in Neotropical Birds: The Effect of Distance Between Fruits on Preference Patterns. Ecology 65(3): 844-850

This study focuses on the influence of travel time between fruiting plants and choice patterns of birds in a rain forest of Costa Rica. Results showed that the distance at which each bird would travel between fruiting plants was correlated with their preference for one species of fruit over another. Results suggest that less preferred fruits may be taken when more preferred fruits are spaced further apart. Feeding patterns appear to be a consequence of the abundance and spacing of available foods. This study will be of importance to the birds group by providing some general information on why some bird species may be more abundant at one point count than at another. (Adriane Smith)

Lieberman, D., Lieberman, L. (1987) Forest Tree Growth and Dynamics at La Selva, Costa Rica. Journal of Tropical Ecology Vol. 3, No. 4: 347-358

This study reports the results of a long-term permanent plot study in 12.4 ha of primary tropical wet forest in Costa Rica. The authors obtained their data from trees that were planted in three permanent plots that totaled 12.4 ha. Overall they found that in a total of 5530 live trees and lianas, stem density, basal area, and species richness differed among the three plots. In the discussion section the authors state that the La Selva Biological Station is the most dynamic of tropical forests studied, because of contributing factors such as high rainfall, saturated soil, strong winds, and steep topography (in some areas). Though highly technical, this paper will prove useful in our group study of plants. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Loescher, H.W., Powers, S.J., Oberbauer, S.F. (2002) Spatial variation of throughfall volume in an old growth tropical wet forest, Costa Rica. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 18: 397-401 (Accessed 2008 May 21)

The authors of this article conducted a study to quantify the throughfall water volume in a tropical wet forest in Costa Rica. Throughfall volume includes both free throughfall and canopy drip. The author claims that in the past, throughfall estimations have not taken canopy structure into consideration and therefore have not accounted for spatial variability. They obtained their own data from a study site where they placed collectors more than 45 m apart. They found a high variability using a calculation to establish the relationship. This article might be helpful when we are designing a protocol for water analysis on the property. (Adaire Chatry)

Loiselle, B. (1987) Migrant abundance in a Costa Rican Lowland Forest Canopy. Journal of Tropical Ecology, Vol. 3, No. 2: 163-168

The author of this study examined the seasonal use of lowland forest canopy by migrant bird species in Costa Rica. Data was obtained from both auditory and visual counts. She compared her study to three earlier studies. Overall the author found that canopy use by migrants in lowland wet forest is seasonal, with the highest abundance in the fall and lowest abundance during the spring migration. She concludes that the low abundance of canopy migrants during spring could be attributable to the frugivorous habits of spring migrants and the low availability of canopy fruits during the springtime. This paper overall is very informative, and will prove useful for our study of Costa Rican habitats. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Loiselle, Bette A. and John G Blake ( 1991). Temporal Variation in Birds and fruits along an elevational gradient in Costa Rica. pg 180-193

Using mist netting, the authors studied the abundance of frugivors along an elevation gradient. They noticed that migrant species were more abundant in lowlands at the peak of fruit production. They also concluded that birds at higher altitudes had more body fat and required more food resources. They noticed that species abundance in the area was positively related to food abundance as fruit ripened. They concluded that more research is necessary. (Katherine Biernat)

Longino, John The Cercropia-Azteca association in Costa Rica. The Evergreen State College, WA. 22 September 2005. http://academic.evergreen.edu/projects/ants/ANTPLANTS/CECROPIA/Cecropia.html

Neotropical Azteca ants and Cecropia trees are important invaders of deforested areas. There is some debate over whether the relationship is mutualistic. The hollow internodes of these trees are usually occupied by a single colony of biting ants, which harvest the muellerian bodies at the leaf-bases of the tree as their primary food source, and do not forage off their host's foliage. It appears that frequent human disturbance of land favors Azteca species which reproduce early at the expense of tree defense, as opposed to primary forest or old secondary forest, which favor ant species which invest in host-tree defense by delaying reproduction. Cecropia species also show distribution affected by human disturbance. Species described as "weedy" frequently overrun human-deforested areas, while other "forest species" occur in gaps in the primary forest. Overall, it would seem that disturbed areas are unusual prone to colonization by invasive species. (Katheryn Miller)

Lorentzen, S. Roscher, C. Schumacher, J. Schulze, E. D. Schmid, B. (2008) Species richness and identity affect the use of aboveground space in experimental grasslands. From Science Direct (accessed 2008 22 May)

This article discusses how all plant species compete for the same major resources (water, carbon dioxide, mineral nutrients, and light. Many factors affect plant species richness. Light exploitation is one of them. The authors of this study used horizontal and vertical line transects. They recorded the length that a plant took up on the transect. They then used pin frames to count all the plants. They made sure to take this data during times of peak biomass (before mowing). In the results they found that increasing species richness of mixtures of plants generally had a negative effect on the number of rooting shoots of herbs. The cover of their experimental communities was higher in mixtures than in a plot with a single type of plant. Plant richness depends on light quality and amount of adaptable changes during the plant growth formation. Gradients of light availability are developed in closed canopies. Hence we see that for ideal growth we should have some open canopies and diversity in the plants. (Mary Boyum)

Marchamalo, M., Romero, C. (2007) Participatory decision-making in land use planning: An application in Costa Rica. Ecological Economics 63: 740-748.

The authors in this study examined the problem of the aggregation of individual stakeholder preferences into a single collective preference. They addressed the problem using methods based upon the definition of a consensus within a distance-based framework. The methods were applied to a case study in Costa Rica, using two levels: national and river basin. Overall, the authors found that for energy planning in Costa Rica, the general social consensus (amongst generators, academics, and environmentalists) is that an endogenous power strategy, prioritizing self-sufficiency to cover national demand, is preferred. For land use planning in the River Birrís Basin, the social consensus emphasizes water quantity and continuity criterion, followed by erosion control and improvement of water quality. In their conclusions the authors indicate that their results might be a useful source of information to support the implementation of economic and environmental policies that are related to land use issues in Costa Rica. Overall, this paper is very informative. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Marsden, Richard (2008). MP2K Magazine (updated 2008 May accessed 2008 24 May). Using Virtual Earth with OpenLayers. www.mp2kmag.com/a147--open.layers.mappoint.html

As a response to a lack of detailed map data in Virtual Earth for our study-site in Costa Rica, our very own Mr. Richard Marsden writes a systematic procedure for making a map via OpenLayers, a Java-based applet. OpenLayers, very well suited to our needs, has every feature that our study requires: zoom, pan, etc. Mr. Marsden expands the procedure's resources by listing MapServer as the source of our map's data. The author supplies all the necessary coding information and guides the reader step-by-step to arrive at a finished project. Inasmuch as this is exactly what we're doing (no, really, exactly), this article will be extremely useful to our study. (Noah Jouett)

Martin de Agar, P., De Pablo, C.L., Pineda, F.D. (1995) Mapping the Ecological Structure of a Territory: A Case Study in Madrid (Central Spain). Environmental Management 19: 345-357.

The authors of this article conducted a study to construct an ecological map of territory in central Spain. They discuss the technical difficulties of establishing spatial relationships. This article is highly applicable to our study because the authors believe that their successful procedure would be useful in lesser known areas such as our study site. (Adaire Chatry)

Mascaro, J. Schnitzer, S. A. Carson, W. P. (2004) Liana diversity, abundance, and mortality in a tropical wet forest in Costa Rica. From Science Direct (accessed 2008 22 May)

This article focused on lianas. Lianas are commonly found in tropical forests and clearly differentiate them from temperate forests. Lianas compose up to 25%-44% of all woody species. They reduce tree growth which can increase tree mortality, so we can see this is a negative correlation. Lianas also increase canopy connectedness and contribute to the carbon budget of tropical forests. The authors set up nine plots, 3 in logged areas and 6 in primary forests. They recorded all lianas present and calculated their density and an importance value. They found that the liana abundance, diversity, and mortality do not have a significant difference between primary forests and logged forests. Also these authors noted that liana activity in the areas they monitored is lower than expected, but the cause is unknown. This article is important to our study because we are also going to take lianas and stranglers into account. (Mary Boyum)

Matlock, Robert B., Jr., Edwards, Peter J. (2006) "The influence of habitat variables on Bird Communities in Forest Remnants in Costa Rica" Biodiversity and Conservation vol. 15, no. 9: 2987-3016

This is an article reporting a study by two authors who observed the effects of forest structure and avian species traits on the diversity, abundance, and variation of bird communities in reforestation areas. Forest structures noted include: tree richness, canopy height, percent canopy cover, understory density and tree density. Linear regressions show that bird richness and tree richness are very much related. Results from avifauna analysis suggest that bird species is correlated with forest structure and tree species. This study is much related to our overall goal of being in Costa Rica. Together, the three groups, birds, plants, and mapping, over the course of five days will be examining the relationship between bird species and plant species in order to assist Leaves and Lizards with their ongoing reforestation project. (Adriane Smith)

Matlock, Jr., R., Rogers, D., Edwards, P., Martin, S. (2002) Avian communities in forest fragments and reforestation areas associated with banana plantations in Costa Rica. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment vol. 91, issues 1-3: 191-215

The authors of this study evaluated the conservation values of forest habitats by counting bird species in 10 forest fragments and reforestation areas surrounding 7 banana plantations in Costa Rica. Bird species were inventoried by point counts in conserved forest remnants and in reforestation areas. Mist netting was also utilized in order to obtain information about reproductive patterns. Overall they found that small-scale forest patches that are associated with banana plantations may provide habitat for bird species that are susceptible to habitat disturbances. This journal could be valid to our study in that it provides successful examples of avian point counts within a reforestation area, as well as a correlation between bird habitat and reforestation areas. (Adriane Smith)

McPhaul, J. (2007) Costa Rica Plants 5 million trees. From Environmental News Network Website December 6, 2007 (accessed 2008 21 May) Available from http://www.enn.com/ecosystems/article/26660

This writer reports on the carbon neutral Costa Rican Policy of 2021. Costa Rica is currently undergoing one of the most ambitious carbon emission programs. Last year they planted a total of 6.5 million trees and in 2008 they plan on planting 7 million. The trees planted last year should absorb 111,000 tons of carbon dioxide emissions a year. This president Arias realizes the importance of Costa Rican forests to the tourist industry. Costa Rica is home to 5 % of the world's plant and animal species. Keeping global warming down is necessary to maintaining these forests. Also they report that scientists have linked the climate warming changes to increased mosquito-borne diseases (malaria and dengue fever). If these diseases are on the rise, then the government's plan to counteract disease by planting more trees and maintaining the forests they have is an ideal plan. (Mary Boyum)

Moon Handbooks: Introduction to Costa Rica. (Accessed 2008 May 22) The Land. http://centralamerica.com/cr/moon/moland.htm

This web page provides information on the topology, geology and climate of Costa Rica. The text not highly technical, but the article covers a wide spectrum of topics including the theory of plate tectonics and the mechanics of earthquakes and volcanoes. The article clarifies and supports the presentation "Arenal and Volcanology" with a few more descriptions and statistics. Although it was written for a tourist book, the article contains valuable scientific information about rainfall and temperature, and other features of the land that may be relevant to our study. (Adaire Chatry)

Morin, Peter Jay ( 1999) Community Ecology 283-291

The author distinguishes between two types of patchiness. Patchiness is either due to fragmented habitat, or a mosaic of species populating an area. Distributed patchiness, the dispersal of different species throughout a habitat, can occur without habitat fragmentation, but a positive correlation has been found to exist between the two. The influence of fragmentation on a species is limited by species mobility, the ability to disperse. The authors give several useful models which serve the purpose of relating rate of dispersal, extinction rates, and area of a habitat populated by other species in order to further understand the ability of species to co-exist in a fragmented habitat. (Katherine Biernat)

Nichol, J.E. (1994) An Examination of Tropical Rain Forest Microclimate Using GIS Modeling. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters. (Accessed 2008 May 21) available from http://www.jstor.org

This article presents the results of a study that examined the spatial characteristics of forest canopy temperatures. The author stresses the importance of the rainforest canopy and canopy temperature in terms of temperature regulation in rain forest. The canopy prevents excessive heating and cooling to maintain the species in the forest. The article provides some technical information on the extent of solar penetration to the ground level, which could be useful to use as an estimate in our study. The methodology used for the GIS, although technical may also be useful in determining an effective protocol. The results of the study indicated a narrow range of temperature both atmospheric and water. (Adaire Chatry)

Oosterhoorn, M. Kappelle, M. (2000) Vegetation structure and composition along an interior-edge-exterior gradient in a Costa Rican montane cloud forest. From Science Direct (accessed 2008 22 May)

The authors of the article studied vegetation in the Costa Rican Cordillera de Talamanca. This area is a montane cloud forest which generally allows for good forest growth. Near forest edges, microclimatic variables and soil differ greatly over short distances. Edges normally have higher light transmittance, higher air and soil temperatures, higher winds, and lower relative humidity compared to forest interior conditions. These differences cause the different vegetations between the two areas. At the edge, light exposure enhances growth of shade tolerant species. But it is important to note that tree mortality is also higher at the edge due to a lack of protection for wind and storms. These scientists started their study with 4 control groups. They then had 15 continuous transects10 m by 10 m forming quadrats. They then established subquadrats in the quadrats and monitored their site from March to June. They found mature forest is vertically structured into four layers by height. Succession from grassland to secondary or mature forest can take place at the forest edge. Growth is a cycle of deforestation to reforestation. Canopy growth cover is higher inside the forest than on the edge. So the edge is the part of the ecological niche that continuously changes. (Mary Boyum)

Oosterhoorn, M., Kapelle, M. (1999) Vegetation and composition along an interior-edge-exterior gradient in a Costa Rican montane cloud forest. Forest Ecology and Management 126: 291-307

This paper focuses on the effects on speciation in a number of cloud forest sites that have undergone deforestation in areas. Its main concern is with the speciation at the edge of the deforested areas, intrusion of species from the deforested areas to the forest areas, and dispersal of species from the forest areas to the deforested areas. We feel this paper will also be particularly useful for our study area which has forested, deforested and "recently" planted areas. The authors pay special attention to creating a control of "four representative sites … selected on the basis of the presence of mature upper montane oak forest patches." It will be important for us, beyond beginning to monitor our site, to establish which sites will be prime for use as controls and to record whether sites have been deforested. (Christopher Gurguis)

Orgella Jr, R.. Allison A. Snow and Thoras A Gawin ( Mar, 2001)Species Richness and Pollen Loads of hummingbirds using forest fragments in South. Biotropica, Vol 33, No. 1 pp 90-109

A study was conducted to analyze the effect of fragmentation on hummingbird population in South Costa Rica. In order to study species richness, diversity, and abundance, the authors used the mist-netting to sample the birds. They noted characteristics of the captured birds morphology and analyzed pollen found on the birds. Using this data, they calculated relative abundance and species richness. They found that the amount of birds captured increased in proportion to the area of the fragment. When analyzing the types of birds found in different fragments, the authors found that canopy birds were found in smaller fragments containing less canopy. The authors hypothesize that this is because those fragments were in areas that were wetter and higher in elevation than the larger fragments. The size of fragments was found to be less important for hummingbirds because they forge in neighboring pastures and forest edges. They also have a higher mobility which helps them move from fragment to fragment for nesting and forging purposes. This data confirms the theory that hummingbirds in the tropics are less affected by fragmentation than other, less mobile, species. (Katherine Biernat)

Ostertag, R. (1998) Belowground effects of canopy gaps in a tropical wet forest. In: Ecology. From Bnet website (accessed 2008 21 May) Available from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2120/is_n4_v79/ai_20793928/

The author wrote this article to describe how canopy gap formations affect forest communities. They alter the abundance and distribution of resources such as light, soil moisture, and nutrients. Changes in the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of resources affect forest dynamics by linking natural disturbances to the maintenance of plant species diversity. Most studies of gap formation effects focus aboveground. This is why this author has decided to step out of the box and look at underground effects. She looks at how the consequences of gap formations are related to the local environmental conditions which helps predict patterns for recovery of plants and forest communities after disturbances whether man-made or natural. In order to do this, the author sought out to answer two main questions: how canopy gaps affect root length and biomass, whether or not the consequences depend on soil types. Canopy growth is important in tropical forests because of the stratification and how they show us the old v. the new growth. (Mary Boyum)

Ostfeld, Richard S., Steward T. A. Pickette, Moshe Shachak, and Gene E. Likens (1997) The Evaluation of Biodiversity as a target for conservation 125-135

The authors explore some aspects of biodiversity of birds as a way to target which areas should be conserved. Most important is how many endemic species an area holds. Secondly, one can use the BBS, breeding Bird survey to see which areas have the highest species richness. One must also look at vulnerability index which gives valuable information about how vulnerable a species is to extinction. This article is useful because it shows how to calculate and analyze species richness and vulnerability while deciding what areas to target in conservation efforts. In addition, there are instructions how to map endemism. (Katherine Biernat)

Pejchar, L., Pringle, R. L., Ranganathan, J., Zook, J. R., Duran, G., Ovideo, F., Daily, G. C. (2008) Birds as agents of seed dispersal in a human-dominated landscape in southern Costa Rica. From Biological Conservation 141 2008 (accessed 21 May 2008)

The study examined seed dispersal patterns and how birds play a role in this in Costa Rican countryside as well as how this relates to reforestation. Birds and bird-dispersed seeds were studied at six sites in the countryside, within 200 x 100m plot centered around a 200-m transect. Dispersed seeds were collected in 100 seed traps in groups of five that were evenly distributed within 10m of the 200m transects. Various methods were used to measure how landscape effected seed dispersal. Bird abundance was the best predictor of richness of seed dispersal, and richer seed dispersal was also positively correlated with a greater degree of wetness. which was also strongly correlated with wetness. (Samantha Behrent)

Pejchar, L., Pringle, R., Ranganathan, J., Zook, J., et al (2008) Birds as agentsof seed dispersal in a human-dominated landscape in southern Costa Rica. Biological Conservation vol. 141, issue 2: 536-544

The authors of this study investigataed the roles of birds as seed dispersers in maintaining and restoring forests. They analyzed land attributes and bird characteristics that most influence avian seed dispersal in human-impacted environments. Results suggest that: (1) bird abundance, not species richness or size, may drive seed dispersal, and (2) remote-sensing combined with field verification can detect landscape elements that are helpful for maintaining the option of bird-mediated reforestation" (Birds as agents of seed dispersal in a human-dominated landscape in southern Costa Rica. Abstract). This study may prove useful to our study in that it will give insight into birds' roles and affects within reforestation areas. (Adriane Smith)

Perrins, CM, TR Birkhead (1984) Avian Ecology 57

The propagation of a bird species is based on the breeding season and the rate of reproduction. Although the earlier a bird mates, the more eggs it produce, it is not always better to mate earlier because lack of food reserves will decrease the amount of eggs the bird can lay. In order for a bird to lay eggs when their food source is most abundant, the birds must breed weeks before this time. The amount of food necessary to successfully lay eggs depends on the size of the bird and the number of eggs it lays. The smaller the bird and the less eggs it lays, the earlier it can breed since it doesn't need as much food. The authors distinguish between ultimate factors (evolutionary forces) and proximate factors (specific mechanisms used to time breeding). These two work together and determine when a species will breed. The authors discuss the different mechanisms by which birds collect their food resources and the factors which determine the length of the breeding season. For a species of birds to breed successfully, there must be enough food resources and lack of disturbance around the courtship time. A disturbance in bird habitat, such as trees being cut down, will decrease food supplies and increase the risk for the birds so breeding will diminish. (Katherine Biernat)

Perrins, C.M. and T R Birkhead. "Life Cycles and Population Studies." Avian Ecology. Blackie and Son Ltd., Glasgow. 1983. p. 105 - 136

Avian population densities tend to be stable and have the ability regenerate quickly following a period of high mortality. Rate of increase is determined by territorial sustainability to population-size ratio. Sustainability depends upon the carrying capacity and limiting resources of a habitat, which is frequently food, but may include breeding sites and territories. Birds with specialized niches and/or very restricted ranges are particularly susceptible to local changes, as are many tropical birds which do not migrate but rather maintain local territories indefinitely. Deforestation and non-sustainable agriculture present a particular threat to the stability of the Costa Rican avian ecosystem. (Katheryn Miller)

Perrins, C.M. and T R Birkhead. "Social Systems: Territoriality and Coloniality." Avian Ecology. Blackie and Son Ltd., Glasgow. 1983. p 7 - 32.

This article discusses the dispersion patterns among bird populations and the factors contributing to territorial size and coloniality. The types of spatial distribution of birds or nests which are exhibited are regular, random, or clumped. Clumped spacing indicates coloniality while a regular spacing pattern indicates that territorial space is being defended. For many species these are combined, either as breeding communities composed of individual territorial pairs, or as differing flocks with definite territorial spacing. Territory is usually defended to protect access to certain advantages it confers, which may include space itself as a defense against cannibalism, access to food, decreased competition between ecologically similar species, and safe breeding ground. Spacing is maintained by auditory and visual signals, as well as pursuit and attack. A trend regarding territory range may be generalized by a body weight to territory-size ratio. Larger predatory species are more capable of aggressive action and require more food, therefore they defend larger territories. Likewise for herbivores, which have a less steep but similar relationship, likely determined by amount of food required to feed individuals of differing size. If a territorial range is occupied by the maximum number of individuals it can sustain, even normally communal birds may become individually territorial, moving to an area where the population density is lower. In the case of "floaters" these are communal birds which achieve greater reproductive success by becoming individually territorial and therefore increase their fitness by doing so. Advantages of coloniality include increased protection against predation, foraging advantages and a stable mating pool. Disadvantages included competition for mates, nesting materials and locations, food around the colony, risk of cannibalism, and increased transmission of pathogens. Competition for resources drives both territoriality and coloniality, so the availability of suitable habitats for native avian life is of concern in deforested areas of Costa Rica.

Peterson, Michael P. (2003). Maps and the Internet. Maps and the Internet 2003: 1-14

In this opening chapter to introduce a new concept, Peterson (2003) lays out a framework discussion concerning the Internet and its impact on cartography. Particularly, this impact over time has occurred in three stages: (1) maps initially were scanned from paper to digital format, displayed as an image on a computer screen, then (2) in 1997, interactive maps were delivered over the Internet, resulting in (3) the current stage of the Internet's impact where "…map deliver is dependent on solving specific problems related to map delivery, map design and map use." Ultimately, this third stage will dictate not only the future of maps on the Internet, but for cartography as a whole. Indeed, maps have come a long way from writings on cave walls to instant transmissions of maps occurring every fraction of a second--the later stage having its begin with ARPAnet, a map-network developed by the Department of Defense. Through the advent of NSFNET, TCP/IP, the World Wide Web and search engines, maps have now reached a fulfillment of the current stage. The author then discusses the different file types for map images, ranging from the pixellated .gif to the now seamless .pdf. On the whole, such a discussion will prove beneficial to our final paper, giving us a general framework upon which we can rely. (Noah Jouett)

Powell, G.V.N., Barborak, J., Rodriguez, M. (2000). Assessing representativeness of protected natural areas in Costa Rica for conserving biodiversity: a preliminary gap analysis. Biological Conservation 93: 35-41.

In this study, the authors analyze the ecological representativeness of the protected area system (gap analysis) using Holdridge's life zones as an indicator of terrestrial biodiversity. They obtained their data for this study by digitizing the locations of most areas from 1:200,000 scale maps produced by the Costa Rican National Park Service, whereas the remainder of the locations were digitized from 1:50,000 scale maps. Overall they found that the gap analysis revealed that representation of Costa Rica's 23 life zone categories varied from 0 to 100%, and that only nine (they comprise 62% of the country) are adequately protected according to the authors' criteria. In their conclusions they indicated that designing protected areas that are composed of aggregates of life zones are important because they provide larger and more suitable habitat blocks for most species. This paper was very informative and will be helpful to us in our study of the reforestation project going on at Leaves and Lizards. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Radzicki, D. Habitat Fragmentation in Tropical Ecosystems. 4 May 2002. http://jrscience.wcp.muohio.edu/fieldcourses01/PapersCostaRicaArticles/HabitatFragementationinTr.html

Habitat fragmentation is defined as the disruption of a formerly continuous habitat and interdependent ecosystem. Deforestation due to farming reduces the natural flora to unconnected bands. Negative effects of habitat fragmentation include the decreasing of habitat area, changing behaviors of indigenous species, the eradication of species that need continuous canopy cover, the disruption of interdependent ecological relationships, a decrease in native diversity and a correlated increase in ecological susceptibility to invasive species. Mechanisms by which fragmentation occurs and respective levels of severity are detailed. Also discussed is the result of deforestation of surviving areas of natural flora. Species which are specialized to thrive in the center of a forest are now forced to live on the edge, where factors such as sparser canopy coverage, different ecological relationships, and human impact can affect their survival. Disrupted forests show signs of receding due to stress and have difficulty recovering, making clear the need for continuous rather than fragmented swaths of natural forest. (Katheryn Miller)

Raich, J., Russell, A., Bedoya-Arrieta, R. (2007). Lignin and enhanced litter turnover in tree plantations of lowland Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 239: 128-135.

The authors of this study quantified the effect of competition between overstory species on forest floor dynamics in lowland Costa Rica. They obtained their data from experimental tree plantations that had been established on the western annex for Tropical Studies' La Selva Biological Station. Overall they found that different species vary in their litter production rates even when grown under similar conditions, and also that litterfall nitrogen fluxes at the site being studied were large in comparison to those in other neotropical plantations. In their conclusions they indicated that decomposition studies would require experiments in which individual biochemicals can be tested singly under controlled conditions. This paper was highly technical, but will prove useful in our group study of different tree species. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Read, J.M., et al. (2003) Application of merged 1-m and 4-m resolution satellite data to research and management in tropical forests. Journal of Applied Ecology. 40: 592-600. (Accessed 2008 May 22)

The article presents the findings of a study the use of IKONOS satellite data to characterize tropical forest structure. The authors tried to link field data to satellite data in order to determine accuracy and future applications. Although the study was carried out in a tropical moist forest, it is applicable to our study because their method established a relationship between real tree points and satellite images. The paper also provides some useful information about georefrenceing including acceptable error distance (<4m). (Adaire Chatry)

Restrepo, Carla and Natalia Gomez (1998). Responses of understory birds to anthropogenic edges in a neotropical montane forest. pg 170-183

The authors studied the distribution of frugivors, insectivores, and necavore birds in a neotropical, fragmented habitat. Using mist netting, the authors gathered data about species abundance near the edge and forest interior in the dry season and in the wet season. Frugivors were found to be more abundant in the forest interior in dry months than in wet months. Insectivores were more abundant in the forest interior in general, but became more abundant near new edges in the wet months. Nectavors were most abundant at the forest edge. The authors concluded, based on the nonuniform bird counts in new and old edges, that edge dynamics change over time and that further research is needed to correctly understand edge effects on different species of birds. (Katherine Biernat)

Sanchez-Azofeifa, G. Arturo, Harriss, Robert C., Stokes, David L. (2001) Deforestation in Costa Rica: A Quantitative Analysis Using Remote Sensing Imagery. From Biotropica September 2001 (accessed 21 May 2008).

This article discusses deforestation and forest fragmentation in Costa Rica as seen from satellite images of land cover. It asserts that almost all Tropical Moist Forest and Premontane Moist Forest have been eliminated and the remaining forests are suffering from fragmentation. Rates and patterns of deforestation were measured using Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite scenes acquired in 1986, one central image of Costa Rica, and in 1991--four scenes covering 93% of Costa Rica. 89 sample points were collected for field validation. The data analysis included identifying forest and non-forest areas as well as areas considered closed forest, and the percent of closed forest in provinces was also calculated. According to the study 70% of the primary forests of Costa Rica are outside protected areas and the averaged annual deforestation rate is 4.9%. It also asserts that most of the biodiversity for tropical and premotane moist forest is already lost and unrecoverable. (Samantha Behrent)

Sánchez-Azofeifa, G.A., Harriss, R.C., Skole, D.L. (2001) Deforestation in Costa Rica: A Quantitative Analysis Using Remote Sensing Imagery. Biotropica 33: 378-384

A paper covering the trends in deforestation, it is good for us to know where we are situated in the larger reforestation project. Unfortunately, this paper ends on a somewhat pessimistic note, at least about the reforestation efforts that are currently being undertaken. It does, however, make a series of six recommendations to improve the reforestation process (increasing harvest efficiency, increasing industrial efficiency, organizing rural populations and integrating them into the effort, increasing privately owned areas for ecotourism, beginning government-funded incentives for preservation and joining the reforestation project to the carbon sequestration project). The paper will not help for our specific project, but it does give some idea of the greater ecological whole that our project will fit into. (Christopher Gurguis)

Sanford, R., Braker, H.E., Hartshorn, G. (1986) Canopy openings in a Primary Neotropical Lowland Forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology Vol. 2, No. 3: 277-282.

In this study, the authors describe size, nearest neighbor and spatial patterns for canopy openings on 97.3 hectares of intact tropical forest in the La Selva Biological Station forest reserve. Data was obtained from 230 mm color contact prints from two flight lines that were photographed by the Forest Management Institute of the Canadian Forest Service. Overall the authors found that canopy openings are abundant in the primary forest at La Selva, and that these openings are due to few large tree falls. In their conclusions they state that knowing the range of canopy opening size, relative abundances by size class, and distribution will help in understanding and predicting lowland tropical forest processes such as maintenance of species diversity, evolutionary adaptations, nutrient cycling, and recovery from disturbance. This paper was technical, but will prove useful in our study of the different habitats in Costa Rica. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Sekerciogu, C., Loarie, S., Brenes, F., Ehrlich, P., Daily, G. (2007) "Persistence of forest birds in the Costa Rican agricultural countryside" Conservation Biology vol. 21, no. 2: 482-494

The authors of this study claim that "more than half of Costa Rica's native land birds use mostly deforested agricultural countryside". As a result of this, the authors took an ecological approach and focused their attention on determining how these birds survive in such a manner, whether they travel regularly between forests and agricultural land, or if they are able to survive in human-dominated land year-round. Radiotelemetry was used to observe habitat use, movement, foraging, and nesting patterns. Three species were observed, each varying in their vulnerability to deforestation. Results showed that neither of the species commuted, but rather survived in the deforested area. One of the three species however displayed a decrease in breeding success in human-dominated areas as compared to forests. (Adriane Smith)

Skutch, Alexander F. (1999) Helpers at Birds' Nesters. pg 1-6

The phenomenon of helper birds in the tropics is explained in this work. Helpers among birds are birds that help others, most commonly with no immediate reward. They are either interspecific, which help other species, or intraspecific, which help their own species. The author further categorizes the helper birds by function under the two main classifications of reproductive helper and other. A helper in cooperative breeding serves functions such as defending the territory and nest, feeding the incubating mother, and sometimes repairing and building nests. Other helper birds serve functions such as grooming and teaching fledglings how to get back to the nest. (Katherine Biernat)

Stiles, F. Fary and Alexander F. Skutch. "Costa Rican Avifauna." A Guide to the Birds of Costa Rica. p 34-43.

Regarding habitat, most Costa Rican avifauna reside in their territories year-round, although some varieties move locally to take advantage of fruiting seasons, temperature changes with elevation, and seasonal change with the rainy and dry seasons. Migrant birds arrive in late summer and share habitats with native species and infrequently competing for territory or food. The types of food available are similar to the Northern Temperate Zone. Some birds opportunistically exploit an entire range of a food type, while others specialize in certain varieties of a food type or in certain means of acquisition, which gives them an advantage in obtaining that food but a disadvantage during off-seasons. Birds generally flock to aid against predation, and interspecies flocking, limited by territorial bounds, is tolerated among some birds. At the limits of territorial bounds, visiting birds leave their host flock and may be picked up by another flock. This is often impossible to detect, and stresses the importance of bird banding in determining habitat range and the territorial habits of avian species. This is an important consideration for the future of the "Leaves and Lizards" bird census project. (Katheryn Miller)

Taylor, Fraser D.R. (2003). The Concept of Cybercartography. Maps and the Internet 2003: 437-445

In this chapter, the author lays out the concept of cybercartography, i.e. the use of digital maps. The author charges the reader to take into consideration the utility of maps, or their functionality. The advent of cybercartography has increased this utility dramatically, enabling the use of animations, icons, etc. to enhance the experience of the map-reader and to present more information conducive to understanding the mapped environment. The author goes into a meticulous discussion concerning the audiences that will receive such information and their subsequent absorption of such. Furthermore, through diving into cybercartography's utility, the author discusses the use of these maps in teaching, presenting, etc. This chapter proves useful to our study insofar as it offers an interesting point to consider: how do we mold our map to enhance user utility and maximize audience information absorption. (Noah Jouett)

Travel to Costa Rica Ecotourism Webpage (accessed 2008 May 20) Costa Rican Ecology. http://www.travel-to-costarica.com/costa_rica_ecology.htm

This website was stared by a native from Uruguay named Diego. His favorite country besides his own is Costa Rica so he started this webpage about Costa Rican and works in collaboration with Dilu Dilu Management. This site gives a general overview of Costa Rica, maps, geography, climate, ecology, history, sociology, and government. This site is relevant to this course because it is always important to learn as much about a country you are visiting as possible. This website gives valuable insights into the life of Costa Ricans and how much they care about their environment. They currently have one of the most advanced conservation programs and that is important because that is why we are going to travel there to help. (Mary Boyum)

Velozo, Camino & de., Ronnie (2000) Costa Rica: Forest Policy and Land Use. University of Dallas, NetLibrary. 20 May 2008.

This book discusses the evolution of Costa Rican forest policies. In particular, it discusses the main change in Costa Rican land use since 1950, and that the transformation of forests into farmland. The book explains the development of special conservation areas which promoted reforestation. This book will be particularly useful to our study in that it provides a better understanding of the overall importance of our purpose and study in Costa Rica. (Adriane Smith)

Weings, John A (1997) The Emerging Role of Patchiness in Conservation Biology In The Ecological Basis of Conservation 93-107

The author focuses on the role of special patchiness on ecological diversity. He discusses landscape ecology which believes that for a type of species patches may contain certain benefits or risks, such as predators. In landscape ecology, one must examine the relationship between these costs and benefits. In addition, the edges, or boundaries of the patches have different permeability to different species. This way, patches have influence on their neighboring patches. Lastly, in landscape ecology, the author discusses connectivity. Changes in habitat due to human activity tends to create a loss of habitat area and tends to fragment the habitat. The author suggests that the extent of fragmentation of habitat may be secondary to the persistence of this situation over time. The author concludes with suggestions further research on the affect of loss of connectivity on species behavior and density. This article is useful in understanding the theory of landscape ecology which will be further explored. (Katherine Biernat)

Wheelwright, Nathaniel T. (1991) How Long do Fruit-Eating Birds stay in the Plants Where They Feed? From Biotropica March 1991 (accessed 21 May 2008)

Discusses three previous hypotheses of how fruit eating behavior of birds effects seed distribution of the fruit: length of time in tree is until satiation or supply is exhausted; overall risk of attack and predation; and crypsis, diet and breeding system. The article then presents data on how much time four species of fruit-eating birds spent in bouts of foraging in eight species of Lauraceae trees in a lower montane forest in Costa Rica. Regular watches from 1-6 hours from four species of birds feeding in fruit trees were conducted over a 17 month period, and fruit size crops were estimated by quadrants within a tree. There were no conclusive results supporting these hypotheses from this study as each certain species of birds would and would not follow the predicted patterns of the hypotheses. Further study and with a larger sample size is suggested. (Samantha Behrent)

Whitmore, T.C., Peralta, R., Brown, K. (1985) Total species count in a Costa Rican tropical rain forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 1:375-378

This source is a short paper that should provide some basic idea of the diversity we should expect entering our specific site. It also gives some basic ideas for establishing a monitoring site (this study used 10m x 10m quadrats). The study in this paper included species of trees as well as epiphytes, something we might take into consideration for our own project. (Christopher Gurguis)

Zawahi, R.A. (2008) Instant trees: using giant vegetative steaks in tropical forest restoration. Forest Ecology and Management. 255: 3013-3016 (Accessed 2008 May 21)

This article documents a recent reforestation study that used three different types of oversized vegetative steaks in three different locations in Costa Rica. The types of trees studied were Ficus pertusa (Moraceae), Bursera simaruba (Burseraceae), and Erythrina poeppigiana (Fabaceae). The study was carried out in a Tropical Premontane Rainforest According to the method detailed in the article, the author planted the steaks in a grid formation and over 1 year observed the results. He saw significant growth in the Erythrina and the Bursera but not as much in the Ficus. Although the oversized steaks had a greater growth rate than standard steaks in earlier studies, they are much harder and expensive to transport. This article could be helpful when we are coming up with suggestions for further restoration. (Adaire Chatry)

Zahawi, R.A. (2008) Instant trees: Using giant vegetative stakes in tropical forest restoration. Forest Ecology and Management 255: 3012-3016.

The authors in this study evaluated the success and growth of planting oversized vegetative stakes of three species: Ficus pertusa, Bursera simaruba, and Erythrina poeppigiana at three different sites in southern Costa Rica. They obtained their data from ten stakes (from each species) that were planted at random in rows 2 m apart from each other, thus creating a grid that was 8 m x 10 m. Overall they found that there was no significant difference in mean height or initial DBH, that after 1 year the number of live stakes varied by species, that the site did not affect the number of live stakes, that canopy area varied among species and sites, and that canopy area was affected by species, site and an interaction between these two factors. In their conclusions they indicated that field trials that examine recruitment patterns beneath oversize stakes would yield further insights into the potential value of this method for reforestation projects. This paper is highly technical, but useful especially for our project. (Lorea Ormazabal)

Zahawi, R.A (2008) Instant trees: using giant vegetative stakes in tropical forest restoration. Forest Ecology and Management 255: 3013-3016

In his article, Mr. Zahawi lays out the ecological and economical advantage for using the stake method in Costa Rican reforestation, arguing that cost, slow growth rate and poor seedling survival make mere planting a less viable option. However, this method has its shortcomings: namely in height. However, Mr. Zahawi suggests planting larger stakes to overcome this obstacle. Using three species, the author randomly planted trees with stakes in rows and employed a chi-squared calculation to procure his data. After his experiment was completed, the author claims that the average tree height was around 4 meters. This paper is useful to our study insofar as it offers a good way to maximize good height when embarking on reforestation projects. (Noah Jouett)

Zuchowski, W. (2007) Tropical Plants of Costa Rica. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 39-73

The author of this book wrote a chapter on common tropical trees in Costa Rica. Each tree is described by a picture, description, flowering section, distribution, random notes, and other related species. The list of trees described are: Wild cashew, Kapok tree, Balsa tree, Cecropia tree, Clethra tree, Guanacaste, Inga, Nance, Doll's eye, Lengua de gato, Maria, Spanish Cedar, Uruca, Fig tree/ strangler, Root beer plant, Guacimo, Monkey comb, Guacimo macho, and Trema. It is important for my group especially to recognize these trees and know a little bit about their requirements and the animals they attract so that we can correctly identify them in the field when the time comes. (Mary Boyum)

Zuchowski, W. (2007) Tropical Plants of Costa Rica: A Guide to Native and Exotic Flora.

This book is a second field guide that will be especially useful during our work at the site in Costa Rica. The text is divided into two sections on trees, three "special topics," a section on special habitats, a section on tropical groups, and a section on grasses. Each section is further divided based on family and then species. One of the special topics that should be useful for our project is a section on reforestation. The book also includes and introduction to field identification. (Christopher Gurguis)